The History of Science

Science is rooted in early civilizations, such as Egypt and Mesopotamia around the 30th to 12th centuries BCE. These societies established the foundation of current mathematics and astronomy and built the pillars for later Greek natural philosophy of classical antiquity (12th to 1st century BCE), which aimed to explain world events using natural causes. After the summit of Greek science, Roman contributions to science were very limited – mainly philosophical and not experimental – in the 1st to 5th centuries CE. The Middle Ages (the medieval era, or the Dark Ages, in the 5th to 16th centuries CE) that followed Roman culture represent a period of poor advancement in sciences, as many novel ideas were discredited by the Catholic Church, and experimentation and progress were rarely encouraged. The Islamic golden age in the 8th to 13th centuries CE represented a flourishing of the Islamic world, which became a major intellectual center for science, philosophy, and medicine. All these early discoveries and explorations by various cultures and civilizations paved the way for the major scientific revolution of the 16th to 17th centuries CE and laid the foundations for the Age of Enlightenment in the 18th century, prioritizing logic and emphasizing the scientific method. Moving into the 19th century with the post-scientific revolution, science was increasingly emphasized in schools, and science became a more mainstream profession. William Whewell replaced the older term “natural philosopher” with “scientist” in 1833. Science advanced dramatically during the 20th century, building on progress from previous centuries. This chapter focuses on some of the most significant landmarks in the history of science.