Green synergy: advancements in biosurfactant-assisted microbial remediation and formulation strategies for explosive-contaminated soils

Widespread use of nitro-aromatic and nitramine explosives such as 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene, hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine, and octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocane has caused persistent and toxic contamination in the soils/groundwater, posing a threat to the environment and causing health hazards. Traditional remediation methods are limited by high costs and secondary pollution; biosurfactant-assisted microbial strategies offer a green and effective alternative for degrading explosive residues. This review demonstrates the synergistic effects of biosurfactants, particularly rhamnolipids, with microbial agents for enhancing the bioavailability and degradation of explosive pollutants. Core strategies, such as co-delivery systems, biostimulation, and encapsulation technologies, are discussed as next-generation formulation approaches that improve the effectiveness and field application of remediation agents. The review also addresses the promise of multi-omics and consortium design for tailoring efficient degraders and highlights current experimental advancements, limitations, and the outlook for integrating formulation science with sustainable bioremediation of explosive-polluted environments.